Skip to main navigation menu Skip to main content Skip to site footer
##common.pageHeaderLogo.altText##

Articles

Vol. 1 No. 1 (2010): January-March 2010

Pathophysiological Mechanisms and Therapeutic Drug Targets for Complex Regional Pain Syndrome – Type I

DOI
https://doi.org/10.37285/ijddd.1.1.1
Submitted
October 28, 2024
Published
2010-10-15

Abstract

Reflex sympathetic dystrophy (RSD), also known as complex regional pain syndrome type I (CRPS-I), is a disabling neuropathic pain syndrome. It is characterized by regional disabling pain, increased sensitivity to tactile stimuli, swelling, vasomotor and sudomotor abnormalities, and impairment of motor function. The disorder usually develops after minor trauma (contusions, sprains, and fractures) or surgery. Pathophysiologically, there is evidence for functional changes within the central nervous system and for involvement of peripheral inflammatory processes, the signs of which are very much evident at the early stage of the disorder. The sympathetic nervous system plays a key role in maintaining pain and autonomic dysfunction in the affected extremity. Accordingly, in the chronic stages of the disease, patients present with a cold-affected extremity and atrophy of skin, muscles, and bones. Increased vasoconstriction, tissue hypoxia, and consequently metabolic tissue acidosis have all been demonstrated in the affected extremity. As for therapeutic drug targets, various modalities of drug action have been extensively studied, which include targeting regional inflammation, ion channels, spinal pain pathways, sympathetic nervous system and the NMDA receptor. Hence, the aim of the present article is to comprehensively review the multifarious pathophysiological mechanisms underlying pain in CRPS-I and the molecular drug targets that are studied to develop newer drug molecules for the effective treatment of this pain condition.

References

  1. [1] de Mos, M.; de Bruijn, A.G.; Huygen, F.J.; Dielem an,
  2. J. P.; Stricker, B.H.; Sturkenboom, M.C. Pain. 2007, 129, 12.
  3. [2] Sandroni, P.; Benrud-Larson, L.M.; McClelland, R.L.; Low, P.A. Pain. 2003, 103, 199.
  4. [3] Albazaz, R.; Wong, Y.T.; Homer-Vanniasinkam, S. Ann. Vasc. Surg. 2008, 22, 297.
  5. [4] Birklein, F.; Sittl, R.; Spitzer, A.; Claus, D.; Handwerker, H.O. Pain.1997, 69, 49.
  6. [5] Stanton-Hicks, M.; Jänig, W.; Hassenbusch, S. Pain. 1995, 63, 127.
  7. [6] Schwartzman, R.J.; Alexander, G.M.; Grothusen, J. Expert Rev. Neurother. 2006, 6, 669.
  8. [7] Baron, R.; Janig, W. Lancet. 2004, 364, 1739.
  9. [8] Birklein, F.; Weber, M.; Ernst, M.; Riedl, B.; Neundorfer , B.; Handwerker, H.O. Pain. 2000, 87, 227.
  10. [9] Harden, R.N.; Bruehl, S.; Galer, B.; Saltz, S.; Bertram , M.; Backonja, M.; Gayles, R.; Rudin, N.; Bhugra, M.; Stanton-Hicks, M. Pain. 1999, 81, 147.
  11. [10] Wasner, G.; Backonja, M.M.; Baron, R. Neurol. Clin. 1998, 16, 851.
  12. [11] Galer, B.; Schwartz, L.; Allen, R. In Bonica’s Management of Pain; Loeser, J., Ed.; Lippincott, Williams & Williams: Philadelphia, 2001; pp 388-411.
  13. [12] Raja, S.N.; Grabow, T.S. Anesthesiology. 2002, 96, 1254.
  14. [13] Rho, R.H.; Brewer, R.P.; Lamer, T.J.; Wilson, P.R. Mayo Clin. Proc. 2002, 77, 174.
  15. [14] Kirkpatrick, A. In International RSD Foundation; Kirkpatrick, A., Ed.; 2003.
  16. [15] Schwartzman, R.J.; Popescu, A. Curr. Rheumatol. Rep. 2002, 4, 165.
  17. [16] Baron, R.; Wasner, G. Curr. Pain Headache Rep. 2001, 5, 114.
  18. [17] Chelimsky, T.C.; Low, P.A.; Naessens, J.M.; Wilson,
  19. P. R.; Amadio, P.C.; O'Brien, P.C. Mayo Clin. Proc. 1995, 70, 1029.
  20. [18] Low, P.A.; Amadio, P.C.; Wilson, P.R.; McManis, P.G.; Willner, C.L. Clin. J. Pain. 1994, 10, 235.
  21. [19] Baron, R.; Levine, J.D.; Fields, H.L. Muscle Nerve. 1999, 22, 678.
  22. [20] Lamacraft, G.; Molloy, A.R.; Cousins, M.J. Pain Rev. 1997, 4, 122.
  23. [21] Valentin, N. Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand. 1996, 401, 171.
  24. [22] Verdugo, R.J.; Ochoa, J.L. Muscle Nerve. 2000, 23, 198.
  25. [23] Wesseldijk, F.; Huygen, F.J.; Heijmans-Antonissen, C.; Niehof, S.P.; Zijlstra, F.J. Mediators Inflamm. 2008, 2008, 469439.
  26. [24] Schinkel, C.; Gaertner, A.; Zaspel, J.; Zedler, S.; Faist, E.; Schuermann, M. Clin. J. Pain. 2006, 22, 235.
  27. [25] Blaisdell, F.W. Cardiovasc. Surg. 2002, 10, 620.
  28. [26] Goris, R.J.A.; Dongen, L.M.; Winters, H.A. Free Radic. Res. Commun. 1987, 3, 13.
  29. [27] van der Laan, L.; Kapitein, P.; Verhofstad, A.; Hendriks, T.; Goris, R.J. Acta Orthop. Belg.1998, 64, 210.
  30. [28] Zollinger, P.E.; Tuinebreijer, W.E.; Kreis, R.W.; Breederveld, R.S. Lancet. 1999, 354, 2025.
  31. [29] Oaklander, A.L.; Rissmiller, J.G.; Gelman, L.B.; Zheng, L.; Chang, Y.; Gott, R. Pain. 2006, 120, 235.
  32. [30] Ribbers, G.M.; Geurts, A.C.; Stam, H.J.; Mulder, T. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 2003, 84, 141.
  33. [31] Rommel, O.; Gehling, M.; Dertwinkel, R.; Witscher, K.; Zenz, M.; Malin, J.P.; Jänig, W. Pain. 1999, 80, 95.
  34. [32] Galer, B.S.; Butler, S.; Jensen, M.P. J. Pain Symptom Manag. 1995, 10, 385.
  35. [33] Dray, A. Br. J. Anaesth. 1995, 75, 125.
  36. [34] Schwartzman, R.J.; Alexander, G.M.; Grothusen, J. Expert Rev. Neurother. 2006, 6, 669.
  37. [35] Davies, S.N.; Lodge, D. Brain Res. 1987, 424, 402.
  38. [36] Dickenson, A.H.; Sullivan, A.F. Neuropharmacol. 1987, 26, 1235. [37] Torebjork, E. In Reflex sympathetic dystrophy; Stanton- Hicks, M.; Janig, W.; Boas, R.A., Eds.; Kluwer: London, 1989; pp 71-80.
  39. [38] Thimineur, M.; Sood, P.; Kravitz, E.; Gudin, J.; Kitaj, M. Clin. J. Pain. 1998, 14, 256.
  40. [39] Del Valle, L.; Schwartzman, R.J.; Alexander, G. Brain Behav. Immun. 2009, 23, 85.
  41. [40] Alexander, G.M.; van Rijn, M.A.; van Hilten, J.J.; Perreault, M.J.; Schwartzman, R.J. Pain. 2005, 116, 213
  42. [41] Coderre, T.J.; Katz, J.; Vaccarino, A.L.; Melzack, R. Pain. 1993, 52, 259.
  43. [42] Roberts, W.J. Pain. 1986, 24, 279.
  44. [43] Ramer, M.S.; Thompson, S.W.; McMahon, S.B. Pain. 1999, 6, 111.
  45. [44] Sato, J.; Perl, E.R. Science. 1991, 251, 1608.
  46. [45] Sato, J.; Suzuki, S.; Iseki, T.; Kumazawa, T. Neurosci. Lett. 1993, 64, 225.
  47. [46] Albrecht, P.J.; Hines, S.; Eisenberg, E.; Pud, D.; Finlay,
  48. D. R.; Connolly, M.K.; Paré, M.; Davar, G.; Rice, F.L. Pain. 2006, 120, 244.
  49. [47] Rosén, L.; Ostergren, J.; Ronald, O.K.; Stranden, E.; Fagrell, B. Microvasc. Res. 1989, 37, 289.
  50. [48] Bej, M.D.; Schwartzman, R.J. Arch. Neurol. 1991, 48, 912.
  51. [49] Kurvers, H.A.; Jacobs, M.J.; Beuk, R.J.; van den Wildenberg, F.A.; Kitslaar, P.J.; Slaaf, D.W.; Renem an, R.S. Arch. Neurol. 1996, 53, 58.
  52. [50] Wasner, G.; Schattschneider, J.; Heckmann, K.; Maie r, C.; Baron, R. Brain. 2001, 124, 587.
  53. [51] Janig, W.; Baron, R. Lancet Neurol. 2003, 2, 687.
  54. [52] Janig, W. In CRPS: Current diagnosis and therapy. Progress in Pain Research and Management; Wilson,
  55. P. R.; Stanton-Hicks, M.; Harden, R., Eds.; IASP Press: Seattle, 2004; pp 293-308.
  56. [53] Drummond, P.D. Int. J. Low Extrem. Wounds. 2004, 3, 35.
  57. [54] Kurvers, H.A. Vasc. Med. 1998, 3, 207.
  58. [55] White, F.A.; Jung, H.; Miller, R.J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2007, 104, 20151.
  59. [56] Hannington-Kiff J., G. Lancet. 1977, 1132.
  60. [57] Kozin, F.; McCarty, D.J.; Sims, J. Ant. J. Med. 1976, 60 , 321.
  61. [58] Renier, J.C.; Arlet, J.; Bregeon, C. Rev. Rhum. Mal. Osteoartic. 1983, 50, 255.
  62. [59] Birklein, F. J. Neurol. 2005, 252, 131. [60] Oyen, W.J.; Arntz, I.E.; Claessens, R.M.; Van der Meer,
  63. J. W.; Corstens, F.H.; Goris, R.J. Pain. 1993, 55, 151.
  64. [61] Holzer, P. Gen. Pharmacol. 1998, 30, 5.
  65. [62] Pham, T.; Lafforgue, P. Joint Bone Spine. 2003, 70, 12.
  66. [63] Drummond, P.D. Lancet. 2001, 358, 168.
  67. [64] Weber, M.; Birklein, F.; Neundorfer, B.; Schmelz, M. Pain. 2001, 91, 251.
  68. [65] Gradl, G.; Finke, B.; Schattner, S.; Gierer, P.; Mittlmeier, T.; Vollmar, B. Neuroscience. 2007, 148, 757.
  69. [66] Okudan, B.; Celik, C. Rheumatol. Int. 2006, 26, 404.
  70. [67] Birklein, F.; Schmelz, M.; Schifter, S.; Weber, M. Neurology. 2001, 57, 2179.
  71. [68] Blair, S.J.; Chinthagada, M.; Hoppenstehdt, D.; Kijowski, R.; Fareed, J. Acta Orthop. Belg. 1998, 64, 448.
  72. [69] Leis, S.; Weber, M.; Isselmann, A.; Schmelz, M.; Birklein, F. Exp. Neurol. 2003, 183, 197.
  73. [70] Kramer, H.H.; Schmidt, K.; Leis, S.; Schmelz, M.; Sommer, C.; Birklein, F. Exp. Neurol. 2005, 195, 179.
  74. [71] Sommer, C.; Schmidt, C.; George, A. Exp. Neurol. 1998, 151, 138.
  75. [72] Empl, M.; Renaud, S.; Erne, B. Neurology. 2001, 56, 1371.
  76. [73] Koban, M.; Leis, S.; Schultze-Mosgau, S.; Birklein, F. Pain. 2003, 104, 149.
  77. [74] Birklein, F.; Weber, M.; Neundorfer, B. Neurology. 2000, 55, 1213.
  78. [75] Gibbs, G.F.; Drummond, P.D.; Finch, P.M.; Phillips, J.K. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 2008, 35, 717.
  79. [76] Kurvers, H.; Daemen, M.; Slaaf, D. Acta Orthop. Belg. 1998, 64, 64.
  80. [77] Arnold, J.M.; Teasell, R.W.; MacLeod, A.P.; Brown, J.E.; Carruthers, S.G. Ann. Intern. Med. 1993, 118, 619.
  81. [78] van der Laan, L.; ter Laak, H.J.; Gabreels-Festen, A.; Gabreels, F.; Goris, R.J. Neurology. 1998, 51, 20.
  82. [79] Eisenberg, E.; Shtahl, S.; Geller, R.; Reznick, A.Z.; Sharf, O.; Ravbinovich, M.; Erenreich, A.; Nagler, R.M. Pain. 2008, 138, 226.
  83. [80] van der Laan, L.; Kapitein, P.J.C.; Oyen, W.J.G.; Verhofstad, A.A.J.; Hendriks, T.; Goris, R.J.A. Free Radic. Res. 1997, 26, 363.
  84. [81] Yonehara, N.; Yoshimura, M. Neurosci. Lett. 1999, 271, 199.
  85. [82] Coderre, T.J. ; Xanthos, D.N. ; Francis, L. ; Bennett, G.J. Pain. 2004, 112, 94.[60] Oyen, W.J.; Arntz, I.E.; Claessens, R.M.; Van der Meer,
  86. J. W.; Corstens, F.H.; Goris, R.J. Pain. 1993, 55, 151.
  87. [61] Holzer, P. Gen. Pharmacol. 1998, 30, 5.
  88. [62] Pham, T.; Lafforgue, P. Joint Bone Spine. 2003, 70, 12.
  89. [63] Drummond, P.D. Lancet. 2001, 358, 168.
  90. [64] Weber, M.; Birklein, F.; Neundorfer, B.; Schmelz, M. Pain. 2001, 91, 251.
  91. [65] Gradl, G.; Finke, B.; Schattner, S.; Gierer, P.; Mittlmeier, T.; Vollmar, B. Neuroscience. 2007, 148, 757.
  92. [66] Okudan, B.; Celik, C. Rheumatol. Int. 2006, 26, 404.
  93. [67] Birklein, F.; Schmelz, M.; Schifter, S.; Weber, M. Neurology. 2001, 57, 2179.
  94. [68] Blair, S.J.; Chinthagada, M.; Hoppenstehdt, D.; Kijowski, R.; Fareed, J. Acta Orthop. Belg. 1998, 64, 448.
  95. [69] Leis, S.; Weber, M.; Isselmann, A.; Schmelz, M.; Birklein, F. Exp. Neurol. 2003, 183, 197.
  96. [70] Kramer, H.H.; Schmidt, K.; Leis, S.; Schmelz, M.; Sommer, C.; Birklein, F. Exp. Neurol. 2005, 195, 179.
  97. [71] Sommer, C.; Schmidt, C.; George, A. Exp. Neurol. 1998, 151, 138.
  98. [72] Empl, M.; Renaud, S.; Erne, B. Neurology. 2001, 56, 1371.
  99. [73] Koban, M.; Leis, S.; Schultze-Mosgau, S.; Birklein, F. Pain. 2003, 104, 149.
  100. [74] Birklein, F.; Weber, M.; Neundorfer, B. Neurology. 2000, 55, 1213.
  101. [75] Gibbs, G.F.; Drummond, P.D.; Finch, P.M.; Phillips, J.K. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 2008, 35, 717.
  102. [76] Kurvers, H.; Daemen, M.; Slaaf, D. Acta Orthop. Belg. 1998, 64, 64.
  103. [77] Arnold, J.M.; Teasell, R.W.; MacLeod, A.P.; Brown, J.E.; Carruthers, S.G. Ann. Intern. Med. 1993, 118, 619.
  104. [78] van der Laan, L.; ter Laak, H.J.; Gabreels-Festen, A.; Gabreels, F.; Goris, R.J. Neurology. 1998, 51, 20.
  105. [79] Eisenberg, E.; Shtahl, S.; Geller, R.; Reznick, A.Z.; Sharf, O.; Ravbinovich, M.; Erenreich, A.; Nagler, R.M. Pain. 2008, 138, 226.
  106. [80] van der Laan, L.; Kapitein, P.J.C.; Oyen, W.J.G.; Verhofstad, A.A.J.; Hendriks, T.; Goris, R.J.A. Free Radic. Res. 1997, 26, 363.
  107. [81] Yonehara, N.; Yoshimura, M. Neurosci. Lett. 1999, 271, 199.
  108. [82] Coderre, T.J. ; Xanthos, D.N. ; Francis, L. ; Bennett, G.J. Pain. 2004, 112, 94.[60] Oyen, W.J.; Arntz, I.E.; Claessens, R.M.; Van der Meer,
  109. J. W.; Corstens, F.H.; Goris, R.J. Pain. 1993, 55, 151.
  110. [61] Holzer, P. Gen. Pharmacol. 1998, 30, 5.
  111. [62] Pham, T.; Lafforgue, P. Joint Bone Spine. 2003, 70, 12.
  112. [63] Drummond, P.D. Lancet. 2001, 358, 168.
  113. [64] Weber, M.; Birklein, F.; Neundorfer, B.; Schmelz, M. Pain. 2001, 91, 251.
  114. [65] Gradl, G.; Finke, B.; Schattner, S.; Gierer, P.; Mittlmeier, T.; Vollmar, B. Neuroscience. 2007, 148, 757.
  115. [66] Okudan, B.; Celik, C. Rheumatol. Int. 2006, 26, 404.
  116. [67] Birklein, F.; Schmelz, M.; Schifter, S.; Weber, M. Neurology. 2001, 57, 2179.
  117. [68] Blair, S.J.; Chinthagada, M.; Hoppenstehdt, D.; Kijowski, R.; Fareed, J. Acta Orthop. Belg. 1998, 64, 448.
  118. [69] Leis, S.; Weber, M.; Isselmann, A.; Schmelz, M.; Birklein, F. Exp. Neurol. 2003, 183, 197.
  119. [70] Kramer, H.H.; Schmidt, K.; Leis, S.; Schmelz, M.; Sommer, C.; Birklein, F. Exp. Neurol. 2005, 195, 179.
  120. [71] Sommer, C.; Schmidt, C.; George, A. Exp. Neurol. 1998, 151, 138.
  121. [72] Empl, M.; Renaud, S.; Erne, B. Neurology. 2001, 56, 1371.
  122. [73] Koban, M.; Leis, S.; Schultze-Mosgau, S.; Birklein, F. Pain. 2003, 104, 149.
  123. [74] Birklein, F.; Weber, M.; Neundorfer, B. Neurology. 2000, 55, 1213.
  124. [75] Gibbs, G.F.; Drummond, P.D.; Finch, P.M.; Phillips, J.K. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 2008, 35, 717.
  125. [76] Kurvers, H.; Daemen, M.; Slaaf, D. Acta Orthop. Belg. 1998, 64, 64.
  126. [77] Arnold, J.M.; Teasell, R.W.; MacLeod, A.P.; Brown, J.E.; Carruthers, S.G. Ann. Intern. Med. 1993, 118, 619.
  127. [78] van der Laan, L.; ter Laak, H.J.; Gabreels-Festen, A.; Gabreels, F.; Goris, R.J. Neurology. 1998, 51, 20.
  128. [79] Eisenberg, E.; Shtahl, S.; Geller, R.; Reznick, A.Z.; Sharf, O.; Ravbinovich, M.; Erenreich, A.; Nagler, R.M. Pain. 2008, 138, 226.
  129. [80] van der Laan, L.; Kapitein, P.J.C.; Oyen, W.J.G.; Verhofstad, A.A.J.; Hendriks, T.; Goris, R.J.A. Free Radic. Res. 1997, 26, 363.
  130. [81] Yonehara, N.; Yoshimura, M. Neurosci. Lett. 1999, 271, 199.
  131. [82] Coderre, T.J. ; Xanthos, D.N. ; Francis, L. ; Bennett, G.J. Pain. 2004, 112, 94.
  132. [83] Kingery, W.S. Pain. 1997, 73, 123.
  133. [84] Bandler, R.; Shipley, M. Trends Neurosci. 1994, 17, 379 .
  134. [85] Wasner, G.; Schattschneider, J.; Binder, A. Spinal Cord . 2003, 41, 61.
  135. [86] Rauck, R.L.; Eisenach, J.C.; Jackson, K.; Young, L.D.; Southern, J. Anesthesiol. 1993, 79, 1163.
  136. [87] Allen, G.; Galer, B.; Schwartz, L. Pain. 1999, 80, 539.
  137. [88] Arner, S.; Meyerson, B.A. Pain. 1988, 33, 11.
  138. [89] Brown, D.G.; Krupp, J.J. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 2006, 6 , 749.
  139. [90] Amir, R.; Argoff, C.E.; Bennett, G.J.; Cummins, T.R.; Durieux, M.E.; Gerner, P.; Gold, M.S.; Porreca, F. ; Strichartz, G.R. J. Pain. 2006, 7, S1.
  140. [91] Snutch, T.P. J. American Soc. Exp. Neuro.Therap. 2005, 2, 662.
  141. [92] Ribbers, G.M.; Oosterhuis, W.P.; van Limbeek, J.; de Metz, M. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 1998, 79, 1549.
  142. [93] Corral, L.G.; Muller, G.W.; Moreira, A.L.; Chen, Y.; Wu, M.; Stirling, D.; Kaplan, G. Mol. Med. 1996, 2, 506.
  143. [94] Huygen, F.J.; Ramdhani, N.; van Toorenenbergen, A.; Klein, J.; Zijlstra, F.J. Immunol. Lett. 2004, 91, 147.
  144. [95] Woolf, C.J.; Mannion, R.J. Lancet. 1999, 353, 1959.
  145. [96] Bonica, J.J. In The Management of Pain; Bonica, J.J., Ed.; Lea & Febiger: Philadelphia, 1990; pp 220-243.
  146. [97] Wilson, J.G.; Serpell, M.G. Critical Care & Pain. 2007, 7, 51.
  147. [98] Drummond, P.D.; Finch, P.M. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiat. 2004, 75, 98.
  148. [99] Price, D.D.; Long, S.; Wilsey, B.; Rafi, A. Clin. J. Pain. 1998, 14, 216.
  149. [100] Blackburn-Munro, G.; Erichsen, H.K. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2005, 11, 2961.
  150. [101] Sindrup, S.H.; Jensen, T.S. Pain. 1999, 83, 389.
  151. [102] Collins, S.L.; Moore, R.A.; McQuay, H.; Wiffen, P. J. Pain Symptom Manag. 2000, 20, 449.
  152. [103] McQuay, H.; Carroll, D.; Jadad, A.R.; Wiffen, P.; Moore,
  153. A. Brit. Med. J. 1995, 311, 1047.
  154. [104] Wiffen, P.; Collins, S.; McQuay, H.; Carroll, D.; Jadad, A.; Moore, A. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2000, 3, CD001133.
  155. [105] Hord, E.D.; Oaklander, A.L. Curr. Pain Headache Rep. 2003, 7, 188.
  156. [106] Mellick, G.A.; Mellick, L.B. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehab. 1997, 78, 98. [107] Nicholson, B. Acta Neurol. Scand. 2000, 101, 359.
  157. [108] Meder, W.P.; Dooley, D.J. Brain Res. 2000, 875, 157.
  158. [109] Patel, M.K.; Gonzalez, M.I.; Bramwell, S.; Pinnock,
  159. R. D.; Lee, K. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2000, 130, 1731.
  160. [110] Chadda, V.S.; Mathur, M.S. J. Assoc. Physicians India. 1978, 26, 403.
  161. [111] Matzner, O.; Devor, M. Brain Res. 1992, 597, 92.
  162. [112] Yaari, Y.; Devor, M. Neurosci. Lett. 1985, 58, 117.
  163. [113] Yaksh, T.L. J. Pain. 2006, 7, S13.
  164. [114] Bowersox, S.S.; Gadbois, T.; Singh, T.; Pettus, M.; Wang, Y.X. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1996, 279, 1243.
  165. [115] Ziconotide: Use in reflex sympathetic dystrophy, PRI031_use_in_ reflex_sympathetic dystrophy 03 Ref number:1-6462160, Elan Pharmaceutical Inc.
  166. [116] Miljanich, G.P. Curr. Med. Chem. 2004, 11, 3029.
  167. [117] Webster, L.R.; Fakata, K.L. Pain Practitioner. 16, 63.
  168. [118] Watson, C.P. J. Pain Symptom Manag. 1994, 9, 392.
  169. [119] Sindrup, S.H.; Otto, M.; Finnerup, N.B.; Jensen, T.S. Basic Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 2005, 96, 399.
  170. [120] Fishbain, D.A.; Cutler, R.; Rosomoff, H.L.; Rosomoff, R.S. Pain Med. 2000, 1, 310.
  171. [121] Ro, L.S.; Chang, K.H. Chang Gung Med. J. 2005, 28, 597.
  172. [122] Bruehl, S.; Lubenow, T.R.; Nath, H.; Ivankovich, O. Clin.
  173. J. Pain. 1996, 12, 316.
  174. [123] Harden, R.N.; Duc, T.A.; Williams, T.R.; Coley, D.; Cate, J.C.; Gracely, R.H. Clin. J. Pain. 1994, 10, 324.
  175. [124] Lee, G.W.; Weeks, P.M. J. Hand Surg. Am. 1995, 20, 458.
  176. [125] Low, P.A.; Caskey, P.E.; Tuck, R.R.; Fealey, R.D.; Dyck, P.J. Ann. Neurol. 1983, 14, 573.
  177. [126] Werner, R.; Davidoff, G.; Jackson, M.D.; Cremer, S.; Ventocilla, C.; Wolf, L. J. Hand Surg. Am. 1989, 14, 520.
  178. [127] Harden, R.N.; Melanie, S.; King, A.; Costa, B.; Barthel, J. Clin. J. Pain. 2006, 22, 420.
  179. [128] Sindrup, S.H.; Bach, F.W.; Madsen, C.; Gram, L.F.; Jensen, T.S. Neurol. 2003, 60, 1284.
  180. [129] Woolf, C.J.; Max, M.B. Anesthesiology. 2001, 95, 241.
  181. [130] McQuay, H.J.; Tramer, M.; Nye, B.A.; Carroll, D.; Wiffen, P.J.; Moore, R.A. Pain. 1996, 68, 217.
  182. [131] Christensen, K.; Jensen, E.M.; Noer, I. Acta Chir. Scand. 1982, 148, 653.
  183. [132] Schacke, H.; Docke, W.D.; Asadullah, K. Pharmacol. Ther. 2002, 96, 23. [107] Nicholson, B. Acta Neurol. Scand. 2000, 101, 359.
  184. [108] Meder, W.P.; Dooley, D.J. Brain Res. 2000, 875, 157.
  185. [109] Patel, M.K.; Gonzalez, M.I.; Bramwell, S.; Pinnock,
  186. R. D.; Lee, K. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2000, 130, 1731.
  187. [110] Chadda, V.S.; Mathur, M.S. J. Assoc. Physicians India. 1978, 26, 403.
  188. [111] Matzner, O.; Devor, M. Brain Res. 1992, 597, 92.
  189. [112] Yaari, Y.; Devor, M. Neurosci. Lett. 1985, 58, 117.
  190. [113] Yaksh, T.L. J. Pain. 2006, 7, S13.
  191. [114] Bowersox, S.S.; Gadbois, T.; Singh, T.; Pettus, M.; Wang, Y.X. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1996, 279, 1243.
  192. [115] Ziconotide: Use in reflex sympathetic dystrophy, PRI031_use_in_ reflex_sympathetic dystrophy 03 Ref number:1-6462160, Elan Pharmaceutical Inc.
  193. [116] Miljanich, G.P. Curr. Med. Chem. 2004, 11, 3029.
  194. [117] Webster, L.R.; Fakata, K.L. Pain Practitioner. 16, 63.
  195. [118] Watson, C.P. J. Pain Symptom Manag. 1994, 9, 392.
  196. [119] Sindrup, S.H.; Otto, M.; Finnerup, N.B.; Jensen, T.S. Basic Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 2005, 96, 399.
  197. [120] Fishbain, D.A.; Cutler, R.; Rosomoff, H.L.; Rosomoff, R.S. Pain Med. 2000, 1, 310.
  198. [121] Ro, L.S.; Chang, K.H. Chang Gung Med. J. 2005, 28, 597.
  199. [122] Bruehl, S.; Lubenow, T.R.; Nath, H.; Ivankovich, O. Clin.
  200. J. Pain. 1996, 12, 316.
  201. [123] Harden, R.N.; Duc, T.A.; Williams, T.R.; Coley, D.; Cate, J.C.; Gracely, R.H. Clin. J. Pain. 1994, 10, 324.
  202. [124] Lee, G.W.; Weeks, P.M. J. Hand Surg. Am. 1995, 20, 458.
  203. [125] Low, P.A.; Caskey, P.E.; Tuck, R.R.; Fealey, R.D.; Dyck, P.J. Ann. Neurol. 1983, 14, 573.
  204. [126] Werner, R.; Davidoff, G.; Jackson, M.D.; Cremer, S.; Ventocilla, C.; Wolf, L. J. Hand Surg. Am. 1989, 14, 520.
  205. [127] Harden, R.N.; Melanie, S.; King, A.; Costa, B.; Barthel, J. Clin. J. Pain. 2006, 22, 420.
  206. [128] Sindrup, S.H.; Bach, F.W.; Madsen, C.; Gram, L.F.; Jensen, T.S. Neurol. 2003, 60, 1284.
  207. [129] Woolf, C.J.; Max, M.B. Anesthesiology. 2001, 95, 241.
  208. [130] McQuay, H.J.; Tramer, M.; Nye, B.A.; Carroll, D.; Wiffen, P.J.; Moore, R.A. Pain. 1996, 68, 217.
  209. [131] Christensen, K.; Jensen, E.M.; Noer, I. Acta Chir. Scand. 1982, 148, 653.
  210. [132] Schacke, H.; Docke, W.D.; Asadullah, K. Pharmacol. Ther. 2002, 96, 23. [133] Guo, T.Z.; Wei, T.; Kingery, W.S. Pain. 2006, 121, 158 .
  211. [134] Kingery, W.S.; Guo, T.; Agashe, G.S.; Davies, M.F.; Clark, J.D.; Maze, M. Brain Res. 2001, 913,140.
  212. [135] Braus, D.F.; Krauss, J.K.; Strobel, J. Ann. Neurol. 1994, 36, 728.
  213. [136] Hashizume, H.; Rutkowski, M.D.; Weinstein, J.N.; DeLeo, J.A. Pain. 2000, 87, 159.
  214. [137] Sweitzer, S.M.; DeLeo, J.A. J. Pain. 2002, 3, 360.
  215. [138] Pahan, K.; Sheikh, F.G.; Namboodiri, A.M.; Singh, I. J. Clin. Invest. 1997, 100, 2671.
  216. [139] Lenardo, T.M . Calabr; ese, L.H. J. Clin. Rheumatol. 2000, 6,19.
  217. [140] Rajkumar, S.V.; Fonseca, R.; Witzig, T.E. Arch. Int. Med. 2001, 20, 2502.
  218. [141] Prager, J.; Fleischman, J.; Lingua, G. J. Pain. 2003, 4, 68.
  219. [142] Schwartzman, OR.; 'Connor, D.; Grothusen, J. J. Pain . 2003, 4, 76.
  220. [143] Bengtson, K.; Rajkumar, S.; Brault, J.; Gay, R.; Jurisson, M.; Winemiller, M.; Witzig, T. J. Pain. 2003, 4, 85.
  221. [144] Peterson, P.K.; Hu, S.; Sheng, W.S.; Kravitz, F.H .; Molitor, T.W.; Chatterjee, D.; Chao, C.C. J. Infect. Dis. 1995, 172, 1137.
  222. [145] Kotla, V.; Goel, S.; Nischal, S.; Heuck, C.; Vivek, K.; Das, B.; Verma, A. J. Hematol. Oncol. 2009, 2, 36.
  223. [146] Schwartzman, R. In Abstracts: 11th World Congress on Pain. IASP Press: Seattle, 2005; p 580.
  224. [147] Zuurmond, W.W.; Langendijk, P.N.; Bezemer, P.D. Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand. 1996, 40, 364.
  225. [148] Zollinger, P.E.; Tuinebreijer, W.E.; Kreis, R.W.; Breederveld, R.S. Lancet. 1999, 354, 2025.
  226. [149] Khalil, Z.; Khodr, B. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2001, 31, 430. [133] Guo, T.Z.; Wei, T.; Kingery, W.S. Pain. 2006, 121, 158 .
  227. [134] Kingery, W.S.; Guo, T.; Agashe, G.S.; Davies, M.F.; Clark, J.D.; Maze, M. Brain Res. 2001, 913,140.
  228. [135] Braus, D.F.; Krauss, J.K.; Strobel, J. Ann. Neurol. 1994, 36, 728.
  229. [136] Hashizume, H.; Rutkowski, M.D.; Weinstein, J.N.; DeLeo, J.A. Pain. 2000, 87, 159.
  230. [137] Sweitzer, S.M.; DeLeo, J.A. J. Pain. 2002, 3, 360.
  231. [138] Pahan, K.; Sheikh, F.G.; Namboodiri, A.M.; Singh, I. J. Clin. Invest. 1997, 100, 2671.
  232. [139] Lenardo, T.M . Calabr; ese, L.H. J. Clin. Rheumatol. 2000, 6,19.
  233. [140] Rajkumar, S.V.; Fonseca, R.; Witzig, T.E. Arch. Int. Med. 2001, 20, 2502.
  234. [141] Prager, J.; Fleischman, J.; Lingua, G. J. Pain. 2003, 4, 68.
  235. [142] Schwartzman, OR.; 'Connor, D.; Grothusen, J. J. Pain . 2003, 4, 76.
  236. [143] Bengtson, K.; Rajkumar, S.; Brault, J.; Gay, R.; Jurisson, M.; Winemiller, M.; Witzig, T. J. Pain. 2003, 4, 85.
  237. [144] Peterson, P.K.; Hu, S.; Sheng, W.S.; Kravitz, F.H .; Molitor, T.W.; Chatterjee, D.; Chao, C.C. J. Infect. Dis. 1995, 172, 1137.
  238. [145] Kotla, V.; Goel, S.; Nischal, S.; Heuck, C.; Vivek, K.; Das, B.; Verma, A. J. Hematol. Oncol. 2009, 2, 36.
  239. [146] Schwartzman, R. In Abstracts: 11th World Congress on Pain. IASP Press: Seattle, 2005; p 580.
  240. [147] Zuurmond, W.W.; Langendijk, P.N.; Bezemer, P.D. Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand. 1996, 40, 364.
  241. [148] Zollinger, P.E.; Tuinebreijer, W.E.; Kreis, R.W.; Breederveld, R.S. Lancet. 1999, 354, 2025.
  242. [149] Khalil, Z.; Khodr, B. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2001, 31, 430. [150] Tal, M. NeuroReport. 1996, 7, 1382.
  243. [151] Baamonde, A.; Lastra, A.; Villazon, M.; Bordallo, J.; Hidalgo, A.; Menendez, L. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol. 2004, 369, 245.
  244. [152] Dahlof, B.; Gustafsson, D.; Hedner, T.; Jern, S.; Hansson,
  245. L. J. Hypertens. 1990, 8, 811.
  246. [153] Oda, M.; Yokomori, H.; Han, J.Y. Clin. Hemorheol. Microcirc. 2003, 29, 167.
  247. [154] Wasner, G.; Heckmann, K.; Maier, C.; Baron, R. Arch. Neurol. 1999, 56, 613.
  248. [155] Eisenberg, E.; Pud, D. Pain. 1998, 74, 337.
  249. [156] Takah ashi, H.; Miyazaki, M.; Nanbu, T.; Yanagida, H.; Morita, S. Pain. 1998, 75, 391.
  250. [157] Mercadante, S.; Arcuri, E.; Tirelli, W.; Casuccio, A. J. Pain Symptom Manag. 2000, 20, 246.
  251. [158] Pud, D.; Eisenberg, E.; Spitzer, A.; Adler, R.; Gried, G.; Yarnitsky, D. Pain. 1998, 75, 349.
  252. [159] Christoph, T.; Reibmüller, E.; Schiene, K.; Englberger, W.; Chizh, B.A. Brain Res. 2005, 1048, 218.
  253. [160] Correll, G.E.; Maleki, J.; Gracely, E.J.; Muir, J.J.; Harbut, R.E. Pain Med. 2004, 5, 263.
  254. [161] Sigtermans, M.J.; van Hilten, J.J.; Bauer, M.C.; Arbous,
  255. M. S.; Marinus, J.; Sarton, E.Y.; Dahan, A. Pain. 2009, 145, 304.
  256. [162] Kohrs, R.; Durieux, M.E. Anesth. Analg. 1998, 87, 1186.
  257. [163] Durieux, M.E.; Nietgen, G.W. Anesthesiology. 1997, 86, 1326.
  258. [164] Durieux, M.E. Anesth. Analg. 1995, 81, 57.
  259. [165] Himmelseher, S.; Durieux, M.E. Anesthesiology. 2005, 102, 211.

Similar Articles

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.

Most read articles by the same author(s)